Customized mangrove restoration
Abandoned shrimp pond in January 2009. Copyright Mangrove Action Project.
Same pond post-restoration, May 2012. Copyright Mangrove Action Project.
Once appropriate restoration areas are selected based on scientific analysis and site assessment results, a restoration program is designed using assisted natural plant recruitment. Topographic surveys using an auto-level determine relative substrate elevation, and water level is measured with simple tools such as rubber tubing and meter sticks. Site hydrology and original tidal streams are important natural volunteer mangrove recruitment for natural plant establishment. Strategic breaches are created in dike walls, and observations are made to identify if natural seedling recruitment is occurring once the stress has been removed. The effectiveness of hydrological rehabilitation is re-evaluated if no seedlings have established in the area, and planting of seedlings only takes place if natural regeneration is not successful.
• Good relations with the relevant government agency facilitate the approval process for implementing the project, such as using heavy equipment in the mangrove zone to repair the hydrology if needed (which may be illegal, such as in Thailand). • Suitable funding needs to be put in place to ensure the project can be completed within the planned timeframe.
The community-based ecological mangrove restoration process is only a guide and needs to be adjusted to each specific site. Mangrove seed source should be available from nearby mangroves which enter the pond or system at high tide and soil conditions are muddy, clay-silt. The presence of nurse grasses is often important to start the regeneration process as they are able to capture the propagules and seeds. The concept of allowing forest to regenerate naturally is a very foreign concept to some government agencies. As opposed to traditional monoculture mangrove planting that creates long-term employment in nurseries and at planting sites, this method creates very little local employment, especially if heavy equipment is used. Therefore, finding ways of employing local people in the protection and maintenance of the restoring site is a challenge. Available labor to carry out the project should be considered, with defined quantitative goals.
Implementation
Local
Mangrove Action Project Ecological Mangrove Restoration Dig and Training Video
Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) Manual
Site suitability assessment
Knowledge of past human uses and impacts on potential restoration sites can support decisions on whether an area is presently suitable for mangrove growth. This includes assessing the modifications of the mangrove environment that have occurred, and identifying and removing potential stresses such as blocked tidal inundation that may prevent natural secondary succession before attempting restoration.
• The restoration site should have been a mangrove ecosystem previously. • Access to information which provides a full historical view on previous land-use and impacts, as well as ecological and hydrological information.
It is important to understand the past human use of the area. Oftentimes, mangroves are planted in areas such as mud flats, salt marshes, or lagoons assuming that the area would be better off or more productive as a mangrove forest. In some locations, government agencies charged with the mangrove management do not want to give up sites for community-based restoration, as such agencies obtain their budget based on the area they themselves plan to restore, which is mainly for raising seedlings in nurseries. Thus, conflicts may arise as the method used in this solution promotes the concept of allowing forests to regenerate naturally, as opposed to traditional mangrove planting methods, i.e. planting Rhizophora species for charcoal production. Another major challenge is the conversion of abandoned shrimp ponds into oil palm plantations with funding from the respective government agency. Many areas for mangrove rehabilitation to protect coastal communities are thus lost.
Implementation
Local
Development of multi-use MPAs
Propuesta Área Marina de Manejo, Los Pargos

Two multi-use MPAs have been developed between researchers, fishers, and the Ministry of the Environment in the district of Bejuco to better manage the local snapper stock. These areas allow for the use of artisanal bottom longlines (the preferred fishing gear of the area’s snapper fishers) and hand lines but do not permit more unselective methods to be used including shrimp trawl nets. Costa Rica’s coastal MPAs began as marine extensions of previously established protected terrestrial areas, and Bejuco’s MPA are no different. Their original intent was to protect sea turtles from shrimp trawlers, but they have evolved into more complex spatio-temporal coastal resource management tools.

 

The area’s MPAs provide a legal framework that protects the interests of local fishers against the industrialized shrimp trawl fleet (shrimp trawlers target snappers in the area because it is not economically viable to fish for shrimp in Costa Rica). Costa Rica is developing climate change adaptation strategies funded by the Adaptation Fund. Inherent in these is the continued development of protected marine areas and the feasibility of expanding the two existing areas is being discussed.

Bejuco’s MPAs were established 10-15 years ago. Their original focus was rooted in sea turtle conservation and did not contemplate ecosystem management strategies. As the importance of the country's artisanal fisheries becomes more understood and appreciated, its MPA system has been forced to evolve, leaving ample opportunity for its improvement and expansion. For this reason, sea turtle data, fishery data, and local management plans are being combined to justify their expansion in Bejuco.

A multi-use MPA management plans that is enforceable and appropriately represents the community’s interests is just as important as the establishment of the MPA itself. Unfortunately, the Costa Rican system of coastal/marine governance is fragmented between two separate entities, the Environmental Ministry and the National Fisheries Institute. These separate establishments do not communicate effectively with one another. Furthermore, the Bejuco MPAs do not have their own management plans, but rather a few added paragraphs to the wildlife refuges’ plans. This has led to governance and enforcement gaps that have been exploited by illegal (gill net and shrimp trawl) fisheries.

Implementation
Local
Coyote and Bejuco fishers call for three year shrimp trawl ban
Artisanal Snapper Fishery Management Plan

Catch composition data, a snapper stock analysis, and fisher ecological knowledge gathered through fisher led focus groups, workshops, and other participatory events were compiled into a management plan that was evaluated by and eventually approved by the two fishing associations. The plan is a local governance tool that details fishing methods and measures that are undertaken to maintain a sustainable snapper fishery. This plan will be presented to other snapper fisheries on the Peninsula desiring to develop management strategies and tools. Co-management strategies are not recognized in Costa Rica, but approval of local management plans is a way to promote their development.

Fishers must be willing to work with researchers to collect the information necessary for the development of a management plan. In addition to this, fishers must also be cognizant of what a sustainable fishery is and how one is governed. This means they will have to develop new fishing methods that maintain the fishery within sustainable production limits, as well as create systems of self-governance that regulate their activities.

The term “management plan” has a negative connotation among snapper fishers. This is due to Costa Rica’s antiquated, top-down system of coastal resource governance. For years artisanal fishers have been told what, where, and when to fish through a series of national management plans that have neglected the local consultation process; therefor, researchers have had to use to term “sustainable fishing strategy” instead of “management plan”. The approval process has been time consuming and fishers are generally suspicious of another set of rules and regulations to follow. Project researchers had to identify key association members who were willing to dedicate time to learning and understanding the benefits of developing a sustainable fishery. These individuals then began to convince their fellow fishers of the strategy’s long-term value.

 

While local snapper fishers observe their fishery's strategy, the Costa Rican government has yet to recognize any co-management development initiatives.

Implementation
Subnational
Paper / Estrategia integral para la pesca artesanal de pequeña escala del pargo…
Article / Pescadores artesanales luchan por primera zona de pesca sostenible
Sustainable financing strategy

The regional government is now working with the NGO and philanthropic communities to transition from an international NGO-driven and donor-funded initiative, to one that is effectively managed entirely by local institutions and that is sustainably financed. Once successful, it will be Indonesia’s first fully sustainably financed MPA network and will serve as a model throughout the country and region. The financial sustainability of the MPA network will be achieved through diversified revenue sources including government allocations, visitor fees and other local financing mechanisms, local fundraising, and a dedicated conservation trust fund. The BHS coalition developed a comprehensive cost model and business plan that projects seascape costs, revenues, and gaps under the “steady state” management system expected to be in place by 2017. Over 70% of local costs are already secured through local sources, with the largest contributor being the government itself. While these local commitments are unprecedented, additional investment is needed to ensure a fully sustainably resourced seascape. The coalition is working with the provincial government to develop a dedicated trust fund, the Blue Abadi Fund, to fill the gap.

  • Conservation Finance Expertise
  • Governmental support and commitment

Long-term is not forever. Sustainable financing is vital for the long-term success of any conservation initiative, particularly at a large scale. At the start of the decade-long commitment to West Papua, the team created a plan to ensure steady transition from an NGO-led and international donor-dependent initiative to one with strong local leadership and ownership.

Implementation
Local
Subnational
Private sector engagement
Liveaboard Dive Boat. Copyright Conservation International, photo by Sterling Zumbrun.
Liveaboard Dive Boat. Copyright Conservation International, photo by Burt Jones and Maurine Shimlock.
The tourism industry was developed systematically to motivate the government to protect natural capital from over-exploitation and to prioritize more sustainable development pathways. The team works with tourism business owners in implementing ecotourism, including homestays owned by local communities, and championed the creation of a transparent and accountable tourist user fee system, which now generates over $1,000,000 per year in revenues that are directed to marine conservation and community development. CI further supported the local tourism department and association of tour operators to take voluntary and regulatory steps to ensure tourism best practices. These ranged from developing a code of conduct for divers and educational video to installing mooring buoys to facilitating the development of Indonesia’s first comprehensive tourism legislation (now a national model) which caps the number of liveaboards, institutes a licensing system, and provides strict guideline for coastal development. The tourism industry, which has become an increasingly large part of the local economy is now a powerful incentive for maintaining health ecosystems and prioritizing sustainable industries over mining and other extractive industries.
• Existence or significant potential for tourism industry development • Interest and commitment of communities • Support from service provider and government • Legal mechanism to collect user fees
he systematic and controlled development of the tourism industry was a major catalyst for conservation in the Bird’s Head, especially to provoke within the government a change to protect natural capital from over-exploitation and to give precedence to the initiative. After years of dedicated engagement and media attention, there has also been a clear shift in government efforts to prioritize tourism as one of the main economic drivers for Papua. The Minister of Mines and Energy has made numerous strong public statements in the media that Raja Ampat is off-limits to mining due to its importance for conservation and tourism. Another shift towards tourism was exemplified in 2012 when the Raja Ampat government passed a local parliamentary regulation banning shark and ray harvesting. This legislation is the first to afford complete protection of sharks and rays in Indonesia and is the first formal sanctuary in the Coral Triangle.
Implementation
Local
Subnational
Bird's Head Seascape, March 2, 2014: Codes of conduct for divers and dive opera…
Adequate capacity and co-management institutions
Local MPA Leader Kris Thebu. Copyright Conservation International.
MPA Training. Copyright Conservation International.
To build effective local management, the BHS coalition actively sought out and recruited energetic community leaders to take on MPA management roles and then spent the next six years systematically building their capacity to effectively manage their marine resources through targeted training programs and one-on-one mentorship. The BHS team launched a comprehensive MPA Management Capacity Building Program in partnership with the provincial government and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The program was designed to turn local village leaders, local MPA practitioners, and local government officials into highly effective and exemplary MPA managers. The coalition also worked directly with local and national government to develop Indonesia’s first MPA co-management governance system and helped create new government MPA management institutions into which the local community MPA teams could be embedded. These new institutions also required considerable capacity development support as they strengthened their institutional management capacity. Through this investment, the MPA network is now managed locally through and legally recognized partnership between local communities and the local government.
• Strong community commitment • Support from government • Legal framework • Willingness of leaders to take the role as MPA managers • Technical and financial support for targeted trainings and mentoring
Government commitment is key to achieve the necessary framework and thus approval of the MPA co-management system. Implementation needs a government agency in charge, and the legal framework for a board with flexibility and autonomy to manage fixed funding sources and recruit non-civil servants. National and local-level policy and legislation provide the legal basis for the MPA network and the mandate for effective implementation of MPA management plans, zonation systems, and regulations. Overlapping jurisdiction for the management of individual MPAs and the national network plan must be considered early. The commitment to hiring locally and then investing in capacity building is considered critical to the long-term success of the MPA network. The approach demonstrates that community-driven conservation at scale is possible: true bottom-up, community-driven conservation does not have to be limited to small scales and local communities can manage very large scale MPAs effectively.
Implementation
Local
Subnational
BHS MPA Management Capacity Building Program Factsheet
NOAA’s International MPA Management Capacity Building Program
Economic incentives for communities

Local communities of Cagayancillo are com¬pensated for economic losses caused by no-take policies. A share of the conservation fee is channelled into a livelihood fund that provides loans for development.

  • Conservation fees for TRNP are anchored in the TRNP Act
  • Policy in place to provide the local communities with a share in tourism revenues

Provision of economic incentive contributed to trust and confidence building between parties. Hiring local residents as a form of economic incentive multiplies the ambassadors for Tubbataha in the communities. Interpretation of agreements made with local communities could be affected by the political process. New leaders, new perspectives on agreements.

Implementation
Local
Local Community Support
Financing Park Management

Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (TRNP) is run with financial assistance from a range of sources. Conservation fees paid by visitors are the main source of funding, providing 74% percent of the annual budget. Grants from NGO’s and the private sector make up the other 26%. These funds are deposited in a local trust fund managed by the Tubbataha Protected Area Management Board and used solely for the administration of the Park.

  • Tubbataha’s natural beauty and rich marine biodiversity is a prerequisite for diving tourism
  • Effective enforcement or rules results in the maintenance of its natural beauty
  • Conservation fees, anchored in the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park Act, fund enforcement and other management activities

Tubbataha requires adequate financial and manpower resources in order to maintain effective management. So far, conservation fees, which remained the same for the last 10 years, are the main source of income. A 66% increase in conservation fees in 2017 provided more income for management, resulting in less reliance on external support. As tourism could be an unstable source of funds due to external variables, more diversified sources of financing need to be obtained. The sale of merchandise and widening the network of possible funders are some ways employed for Tubbataha.

Implementation
Local
Locally-based Park Management and Law Enforcement

Local institutions and communities, municipal and national govern¬ment representatives, NGOs, academia, and the private sector are all represented in a locally-based park management and law enforcement body. Law enforcement is ensured through partnerships with the Philippine Navy and Coast Guard and locally recruited park rangers who receive in-depth training and appropriate surveillance equipment. The environmental situation in the park is monitored regularly, while the effectiveness of governance is measured annually using participatory mechanisms.

  • Partnerships provide the support necessary for law enforcement operations. The Philippine Navy and Coast Guard play the biggest role by detailing personnel on rotation duty at the ranger station and supply of technical equipment
  • Locally-based management body, solely dedicated to implementing the park’s management plan and maintaining a presence in the park

Effective law enforcement requires appropriate enforcement capacities and equipment at the level of the MPA management agency. The management of a National Marine Park requires adequate resource use policies to being in place and being enforced including stringent penalties for non-compliance as a disincentive to illegal use. These laws, rules and regulations need to be supported and adhered to by the legitimate resource users and other relevant stakeholders.

Implementation
Monitoring
Local
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